Chapter 8: The Brain

 

‘It is the mind that is the organizer of our health and our strength, of our associations and responses, of our thoughts, our feelings, and our tissues. The laws of physics and chemistry dictate the conditions which it has at its disposal, but so far no one has been even remotely successful in identifying any combination of these laws as the motivating factor behind the development of consciousness and behavior.’ (JOB’S BODY, A Handbook for Bodywork, Deane Juhan, p xxv)

 

So, why not make an attempt to understand the workings of the brain? A roadmap that is somewhat inaccurate is better than no map at all, and it gives someone the opportunity to amend areas at a later date. At least a start has been made even if some parts are deficient or even incorrect. Sufficient clues to the working of the brain have been published, I believe, so why not make an attempt by setting up a road-map using logical choices.

 

Firstly, a simple ‘rule’ that points the way into the world of ‘life’ is necessary to help clarify a relationship that has been on-going for 3,000 million years. It is basically, the logic that has been forced on all living things by the passage of long periods of time. Over the vast time of evolution and the vast number of animals contributing to survival of the fittest there is great pressure to increase the complexity of biochemical reactions within the body to attain goals that the organism needs to attain to stay alive, reproduce etc. in the ‘face’ of competition.

 

There is also great pressure to reduce unnecessary physical parts, if the same result can be attained another way, bearing in mind that it is necessary to build upon something that already exists. For example, the eye works well, but it does contain ‘engineering’ that could be bettered if we were to design it from basic principles instead of it evolving. For want of a better name, I will call these two statements the Rule of Life.

 

We have seen this before, firstly, iteration, provided by the world scene, and, secondly, simplicity as a basic requirement of life. This second part says that anything not used and that requires extra energy, to the detriment of the organism’s ability to compete is lost over time.

 

postscript: These two simple requirements of iteration and simplicity are actually an integral part of the ‘web’ of life and the operation of the universe, and are presented simply because there has to be a point of entry. Iteration is a Truth, in the sense of the Half-truth and provides an ‘intelligence’ that acts like a mind/brain that creates determinism in quantum mechanics and provides a direction in time.

 

‘Simplicity’ is a state in componentization that forms frictionless logic machines that ‘power’ the physical universe as atoms etc and the same logic machines ‘power’ life and Survival of the Fittest through the more successful organisms having more ‘energy’ for procreation. Together, these concepts form part of the Laws of Life.

 

It is apparent that iteration or Survival of the Fittest are means to an end, but, with intelligence, guided by a mathematics, such as the Mathematics of the Mind, the speed of evolution can be increased, wars stopped etc. as in the Survival of the Best, mentioned later, and we can turn the world into a paradise!

 

An example of the complexity of biochemistry is shown by the following list of neurotransmitters in humans. ‘Gamma-aminobutryic acid ‘GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and is the most common neurotransmitter in the brain …. norepinephrine is the main neurotransmitter of the locus coeruleus. It is an inhibitory nuerotransmitter that is distinctly implicated with learning and arousal….. Acetylcholine …. is an excitatory, which is implicated with memory …. serotonin is another inhibitory neurotransmitter, whose centre is located in the raphe nuclei, in the brain stem…. glutamate, or glutamic acid is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the cerebral cortex….dopamine is mainly concerned with the control of motor function…. histamine, which is involved in allergic reactions in the body, is also a neurotransmitter that is thought to be related to emotional behaviour…. glycine is the most prominent neurotransmitter in the spinal cord and the brain stem. It is an inhibitory transmitter. There are many other neurotransmitters, probably around thirty or more…. The brain is a complicated “soup” of chemicals, which may also interact with each other in subtle ways.’ (Memory and Dreams, George Christos, p 25-27) Thus, the biochemistry of the brain is complicated, but the principles behind the working of the brain should be simple, from the rule above, and as the brain is a computer of some type, let us look at the logic behind some types of computers.

 

(1) Mathematics of the mind: In the simplest case of two limits, chaos and a stable state, we have defined a space, and given another stable state we can move (or compare) between the two (or more), given a mind to direct the choice and a set of rules for each state.

 

(2) Computer-wise: In the simplest state a memory exists or does not exist. With two (or more) states or memories we need a comparator or register to compare them. A program directs the choice, which either needs a mind to write the program, or an evolution to derive a program.

 

(3) Biochemically: In the simplest case, positive feedback (excitation) leads to chaos and negative feedback (inhibition) to a stable state, and we have defined a space. A third factor is the synapse, and in the synapse, the strength of the neurotransmitter varies. This variation will be shown to be crucial for a number of reasons, such as the seventh sense, plasticity of the mind, the subconscious etc.

 

Surprisingly, the brain uses all three! In (1) ‘induction’ in the cortex between the patterns of memory produces ‘creative’ thoughts, (2) holding knowledge in the hippocampus and setting up the memory, and (3) the long-term memory in the cortex. Further, it should always be borne in mind that the nervous system is composed of ‘patterns’ of action potentials, which are being ‘compared’ and decisions have to be made between different states (or attractors).

 

The same can be said for this derivation in this book, in that it is an exercise in the Mathematics of the Mind. Quotes from a variety of sources are presented as patterns (attractors) and our mind ‘weaves’ between them to find a logic that each of us is comfortable with. Perhaps a creative thought might arise or previous experiences can be added to the thrust of the argument.

 

But, starting at the beginning, ‘Dale’s Law, that neurons act in either an all excitatory or all inhibitory way, is thought to be based on the fact that a neuron operates with one neurotransmitter at all its presynaptic terminals, where it communicates its signal to other neurons (Eccles 1964).’ (Memory and Dreams, George Christos, p25) For example, a neurotransmitter, if it weakens from lack of use, may not be strong enough to permit the passage of action potentials and will take that memory out of service. In other words, the memory will move into the subconscious, but not necessarily be forgotten. Indeed, the strength of neurotransmitters is at the core of our mind/brain.

 

‘Each neuron consists of a body (called the soma) and tentacles (called dendrites), which act like tree roots, seeking and receiving information from thousands of other neurons. Information is collected by the dendrites (and the soma itself) and transmitted to the soma, where it is processed. If the sum of all of these inputs into any particular neuron is of sufficient magnitude (greater than some inbuilt electrical threshold) and of sufficient synchronicity (that is, the signals arrive at almost the same time, that neuron will itself “fire”’ (p 12)

 

A program, below, directs the choice between inhibitory, excitatory and strength of neurotransmitter to produce a biological computer, but such a computer is based on patterns that change with time and the surroundings in which the animal is living and can be described by the Mathematics of the Mind. For example, my mind is putting this paper together by pulling together (hopefully relevant) patterns in the form of quotations that I have read in a variety of books and life experiences. Also, personal details will be used on occasion because my lifestyle is necessarily part of this derivation and explanation. This book is primarily a book about anti ageing, but the Mathematics of the Mind requires selecting relevant concepts spread over a wide subject range.

 

The Mathematics of the Mind is a means of using and navigating the patterns that are all around us and which change with time, and the aim is to find solutions or predictions that we can use. Mathematics is exact and unchanging, but once time is added, the situation is not static and must be used by forming a ‘prediction’. An example using the seventh sense will be given later.

 

The form of the brain is very old and very simple in (logical) design, so much so that the brain can be considered to be an unchanging ‘component’ (see below), and the basic form has remained unchanged from fish, snakes, birds, mammals, monkeys and humans. (JOB’S BODY, A Handbook for Bodywork, Deane Juhan, diagram p 169)

 

It is interesting why the brains of the creatures listed above have two hemispheres, and it is an illustration that once evolution has produced something, there is no going back and evolution has to do the best that it can. Iteration through Survival of the Fittest is mathematical, but it is a poor alternative to logic and re-design. More on this subject in chapter 12, but first, let’s start at the beginning.

 

‘In primitive coelenterates, such as the hydra, we find a cell that is both sensory nerve and contractile muscle all in one…. In more highly developed coelenterates, like the sea anemone or the jellyfish, we discover that these myoepithelial cells are differentiated into two separate elements connected together – sensory cells in the skin, and muscle cells in the deeper layers…. such a system is still purely reflex in nature … appearance of flatworms. Here for the first time we find a second layer of nerve cells interpolated between the sensory neurons in the skin and the deeper muscle cells… This is the beginning of the centralization of the nervous system, the first hint of spinal cord and brain.’ (pp 165-166)

 

‘In still higher invertebrates, such as the earthworm, the diffuse nature of this intermediate net disappears, and it is now organized into a distinct nerve cord running the length of the worm…. The overall structure of the earthworm is segmented, and each segment contains the sensory and motor neurons which directly control its sensations and functions. Where these segmental trunks of sensory and motor elements connect with the central cord, they form ganglia which orchestrate their local activities. All these segmental ganglia are connected to one another and finally to the head by the afferent and efferent pathways within the longitudinal cord, and in this way stimulation in any segment can influence movement in any other segment, while the coordination of the entire chain of segments can be orchestrated by the larger head ganglion.’ (pp 166-167)

 

‘The alpha is rooted in the surface of the more recently developed cerebral cortex; its control is more accessible to my conscious awareness, and is the avenue through which I direct voluntary commands to my muscles, such as “raise right arm”. The gamma system, on the other hand, is rooted in the deeper, more ancient strata of the brain stem that are not normally accessible to my conscious awareness, and this is the avenue through which I direct largely unconscious impulses which adjust the position and tone of my body as a whole in such a way as to correctly support my conscious, voluntary movements. For instance, ”raise right arm” cannot be smoothly executed unless the unconscious commands “brace right leg and muscles to the left of spine’ are not automatically triggered by the stretches initiated by the pulling imbalance of the extending arm.’ (p 215)

 

‘In the human being, this gamma system accounts for fully one third of an individual’s motor neurons. In most other mammals, this fraction is even larger, since their cortexes are much smaller relative to the size of their brain stems than is man’s.’ (p 216)

 

‘These latter examples of digestion and distribution are accomplished by the action of the muscles of the viscera, from throat to stomach to intestines to anus, and of the circulatory system, from heart to capillary to vein. These “smooth muscles” and “cardiac muscles”, as distinct from the striated skeletal muscles, are directly linked to the autonomic nervous system, whose very name expresses the independence from voluntary intervention that it once was thought to have. Because we normally do not consciously command the contractions and expansions of these visceral muscles, it was assumed that their healthy activities and their pathologies were beyond our conscious control.’ (pp 291-292)

 

‘The autonomic nervous system is not self-governing at all. Its functions are integrated with voluntary movements no less than with motivations and effects. In short, its roots are in the brain: one’s experiences from moment to moment dictate not only the contractions of one’s skeletal muscles but also large functional shifts in the body’s internal organs…. After all, affect and motivation find observable expression in visceral and endocrine changes.’ (p 292)

 

‘Recent experiments have indicated that visceral and glandular responses can be learned. For example, to avoid an electric shock, a rat can learn to selectively increase or decrease its heart rate, and a rabbit can learn to constrict the vessels in one ear while dilating those in the other.’ (p 293)

 

The alpha, gamma and autonomic nervous systems are ways of dividing up an entity that works together to achieve many purposes, such as to feed itself, to break that food down into energy and use that energy to defend itself, find food and so on. We know that it works, but what are its limitations? The brain can be considered to be a ‘component’, which is a machine that has the capacity to ‘always’ do the job and not breakdown or cause a nuisance, such as an alternator on a car. In fact, as will be shown later, the whole body is composed of ‘components’. This has come about because ‘while physical environments may have differed in the extreme, the conditions of selection under which humankind’s mental evolution occurred were everywhere alike’ (Race and IQ. Ashley Montagu, p 39)

 

Also, ‘known traits that were genetically changed are, as we have seen, primarily in resistance to disease and adaptation to local climates and food sources. No statistical genetic differences between entire populations have yet been discovered that affect the amygdala and other controlling circuit centers of emotional response. Nor is any genetic change known that prescribes average differences between populations in the deep cognitive processing of language and mathematical reasoning – although such may yet be detected.’ (The Social Conquest of Earth, Edward O. Wilson, p100)